Category: Leadership

There are a number of management and leadership theories, applying them to practical situations can be challenging however certain scenarios lend themselves better to some styles/theories.

One theory that can work in multiple situations is the Leadership Continuum Theory developed by Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt in 1958. These styles are the Tell, Sell, Consult, Join and Delegate. They recognise that management style is dependent on a number of factors including the experience and seniority of staff, levels of trust, the sort of relationship the manager has with employees, the culture of the organisation, policies and procedures and the managers own personality and ability to change their style.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt further explained that when leaders choose decision-making options they should consider especially three sets of pressures, situational pressures, Inner psychological pressures and Pressure coming from subordinates.

1. 1. Situational pressures:

• The complexity of the problem.
• The importance of the decision.
• The time pressure.

1. 2. The leader’s inner pressures:

• The leader’s preferences around decision-making (his values, beliefs, behavioural habits).
• The leader’s confidence in his or her team colleagues’ knowledge and experience.
• How important or risky the decision is to him/her or her personally.

1. 3. Pressures coming from subordinates:

• The leader’s colleagues’ (the group members) desire to ‘have a say in the decision.
• The group’s willingness to take responsibility for the outcomes.
• The group’s ability to reach decisions together.
• The group’s readiness and ability to accept and follow orders.

This model provides a linear approach for management and employee involvement that includes an increasing role for employees and a decreasing role for managers in the decision-making process. The theory is that you are able to adapt your style for the factors in your workforce and work.

The Tell style represents top-down, dictatorial decision making with little employee input. This is the manner in which traditional, hierarchical organisations manage employees. Similar to the autocratic style of leadership, the manager makes the decision and tells employees what they are going to do. The Tell style is a useful management style when there isn’t much room for employee input, or used with new employees being trained. Though it is the best choice in certain extreme environments, this leadership method does little to encourage employee creativity and facilitate growth. It also carries with it substantial planning, communication, and oversight costs. This directive leadership style can suit your team when members have little or no experience or in high-risk situations (emergencies) where instructions must be followed. If your situation calls for an authoritative management style, use the path-goal method of leadership. Set (and communicate) clear and immediate goals for your team. Ensure they know exactly how to carry out your instructions – and have all the resources they need. Everyone in your team should understand their roles and responsibilities – and how to handle any obstacles that may arise. Depending on the work environment, you may find this leadership style works well in small doses – and in specifically targeted cases. This is a style that was used recently during the Covid-19 pandemic, with high numbers of staff redeployed or self-isolating and the country in lockdown the model of delivery of our service needed to be adjusted. A decision was made to move to a Hub model of working with small teams of Health Visitors (HVs) working together to cover all the essential work carried out by HVs including safeguarding children and birth visits. This change in the style of working was a top-down decision with very little employee input. It was necessary as a short term measure to continue safe service delivery in an unprecedented pandemic.

In the Sell style of leadership, similar to the persuasive leadership style, the manager has made the decision and then attempts to persuade employees that the decision is correct. The decision is chosen by the manager only but he understands that there will be some amount of resistance from those faced with the decision and therefore makes efforts to persuade them to accept it. The Sell management style is used when employee commitment and support is needed, but the decision is not open to very much employee influence. Employees may be able to influence how the decision is carried out. Recently I have used this style of leadership in the decision to move from GP attached to Geographical working for Health Visitors. This decision has been made as it reduces costs (travelling and time) and ensures that HVs work in communities and areas that they are familiar with. Selling the idea has been a challenge and some degree of persuasion has been needed however, the HV team leads are involved in the planning of the change.

The Consult management style is one in which the manager requests employee input into a decision but retains the authority to make the final decision. The key to using the consult management style successfully is to inform employees that their input is needed, but that the manager will make the final decision. Similarly, with the above scenario, the decision has been made to change the way in which HVs work to save costs and this is non-negotiable however, it has been made clear to the HVs that their input is valued and needed to ensure a smooth transition. If you choose to ask for employee input when making a decision, give them an explanation of the reasoning for your decision when you make it, if there is time. This lets them know that their input was valuable, and whether it influenced the decision or not. It is important that employee input is treated as valuable when asked for. If they are continuously asked for input, but never see it used, they will cease to give constructive input. A recent example of where this style did not really succeed was during discussions about HVs wearing uniforms, traditionally HVs wear their own clothing to work but during the Covid-19 pandemic a number of HVs requested ‘scrubs’. There were a lot of mixed feelings about this subject so it was decided that further consultation was required but that management would make the final decision. Each team leader was asked to consult with their team and inform management of views. This resulted in a large number of emails and phone calls being received by managers on this matter with very polarised views apparent. It was almost impossible to make a decision as there were valid arguments for and against and relatively equal numbers on each viewpoint. Therefore the idea was abandoned (for now). Some staff then felt that their views had not been listened to and resulted in some discontent amongst managers and staff.

In the Join management style, the manager invites employees to join him or her in making the decision. The manager considers his or her voice equal to the employees in the decision-making process. You sit together around the same table and every voice is key in the decision. The Join management style is effective when the manager truly builds agreement and commitment around a decision. The manager must also be willing to keep his or her influence equal to the degree of influence that other employees who provide input exert. The joint management style can be effective when a manager is willing to share authority. Once you use the join management style, you should be aware that your team will come to expect it. This is not necessarily a bad development, as long as you instil the fact that you are the leader and do not need a group session to make decisions. I have tried this once before when I tried to introduce geographical working to one of my teams, the disadvantage (for me) was that the ‘joint’ decision was not to move to this way of working.

Delegation is at the far right of the continuum where the manager turns the decision over to the group. This type of leadership of the Tannenbaum-Schmidt Leadership Continuum model is one of the extreme types of leadership in which the manager gives complete freedom to the team. In this case, the leader is also responsible for all decisions made but he or she encourages the team to identify and solve problems themselves instead of involving the manager. Many times, the manager expects the team to research potential problems and take measures to mitigate risks. This type of leadership many times occurs in the top management of organisations because it enables them to design and execute the strategies of organisations. An example of this style of management is linked to social distancing within the office, staff have been supplied with technology that allows them to agile work. Each team has been tasked with managing social distancing within their office, they must work within the law (2 metres) and Health Board policy and procedures but have been asked to manage this themselves with feedback each month to their Line Manager in terms of who is working office-based/agile working each day etc. The decision making has been given over to the employees as a team that can consider the best way of working for themselves.

The Leadership Continuum Theory believes that as your team members progress in proficiency and competency, you are able to move to different leadership styles depending on the situation and projects. In my experience as a Manager, it is true that your style and approach needs to be reflexive to the situation and the staff that are being managed. Different scenarios require different approaches and whilst this can sometimes be difficult it is essential.

Since the early 1990’s there has been a significant shift in the direction of Education and in particular, the recognition of the difference between leadership, management, and administration. Terminology can confuse but in the UK these central concepts are characterized under the umbrella of ‘Leadership’. A leader can develop visions, values, and transformations for change, however, management is the operational requirement to allow the implementation of these strategies and practices to commence. Administration involves ensuring the staff team has all resources available to do so. In an attempt to review the question posed I will focus on the distinctive features of each and how they relate to the role of the Middle Leader by making explicit links to the abundance of contemporary theoretical ideas. The word Leadership signifies many differing opinions for people. Some definitions are more useful than others, but the focus on improving school outcomes for all pupils remains fundamental.

GTC Scotland emphasizes that effective leadership also depends on collegiality. Teachers require opportunities to be leaders. After all, they lead learning for, and with, learners whom they engage daily. They work with, and support the development of colleagues and build relationships with parents and partners within the community.

When we question the typical features of leadership we most often recall the personal characteristics of a leader we know or the leader we desire to be, for example, one who has clear goals, plans effectively, directs, and motivates staff whilst carefully handling staff well-being. We may consider this individual as an influencer.

Masters (2008) highlights that when we provide our staff and learners with the conditions and opportunities for success we will encompass a fundamentally happy working environment and prepare children for society and future gains. Whilst Head Teachers may be driving plans forward, indirectly middle leaders will be softening the hierarchy of SMT by communicating up to SMT and ‘down’ to the class teachers. This role creates a culture of high expectations ensuring good teaching and learning remains at the heart of Middle Leadership. Hallenger (2009) remains confident that headteachers rely on their middle leaders in order to model, monitor, and engage with staff. Middle Leaders effectively foster positive, supportive relationships with their staff team. By nurturing and respecting their feelings, middle leaders can work sensitively in line with the management team to set new directions for success. “A key aspect in successfully spring boarding between both is by building trust”. Aitken, (2007).

Geoff Southworth (2011) argues that “the quality of education cannot exceed the quality of its teachers”. Therefore, a middle leader will exhibit leadership qualities to observe, question, provide feedback for lifelong learning, analyze progress and share in professional dialogue to improve the quality and confidence in teachers and ultimately improve pupil outcomes.

Management is a function that must be exercised. Of course, this includes problem-solving, facilitating meetings, as well as the traditional bureaucratic tasks but leadership is a relationship established over time. When management skills and leadership overlap we create time and opportunities for colleagues to meet, visit one another’s classrooms, lead discussions, plan new topics, and so on. All of these are important opportunities for professional collaboration. The middle leader can chair these discussion groups by encouraging teamwork and ensuring that time is used to consider the pedagogic and practical changes needed in their classrooms. As much of educational leadership moves away from the use of ‘management’ terminology, as Southworth (2009) points out, through our understanding of management we now have a systematic approach to leadership development.

So far this review has addressed the features of leadership and management and where these fit into the role of middle leaders but let us now clarify its relationship with the administration. When we consider the meaning of administrative tasks within education we think of forwarding plans, timetables, risk assessments, and so forth. Typically, the distinctive responsibilities within schools are held by all staff and can have crucial implications if not completed, for example, failing to take a class register then having a fire drill or a pupil goes missing however there is no official record of them arriving in school that morning. The completions of these administrative tasks allow the system to function in a methodical and orderly way.

In summary, I have sought to articulate the distinctive features of educational management and leadership. In essence, administration tasks entail being assigned and carrying out a set of particular responsibilities that vary from the top down for the proper functioning of a system. This evaluation also addresses how these responsibilities fit within the role of a middle leader. It also compares leadership with the responsibilities of a manager; where the operational requirements are embedded to allow the implementation of these strategies and practices to commence. Whelan (2009) states ‘A school system can have excellent people, leaders, standards, and structures, but unless its teachers have the knowledge and skills to help every child to learn, it will never perform well. In essence, Middle leaders are those working in leadership roles between senior leaders and teachers, and who have significant roles and responsibilities to fulfill within a thriving team.

Leadership styles have always differed all through history. Leaders use their positions to help others and themselves. They are also responsible for making decisions as well as projecting their visions based on the judgment that will benefit the subordinates. There are many leadership styles, ranging from transformational leadership to democratic leadership to authoritative leadership, and they all have characteristics that distinguish them from the other. This paper’s primary focus is Dark (unethical) and Light (ethical) leaders and their leadership styles.

Dark (Unethical) Leader

Idi Amin (1924-2003) was a Ugandan president who was known for his brutal and ruthless ways. He staged a successful military coup in 1971, thus began his ascent to power. He expelled all Asians from his country and caused the breakdown of Uganda’s economy (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019). During his reign, Idi Amin was responsible for the killings of over 500,000 civilians. His atrocious acts earned him the title of ‘the butcher of Uganda’ as mass killings were witnessed as well as violations of human rights.

Idi Amin used a brutal military dictatorship style to rule over Uganda. This type of leadership can also be referred to as Authoritarian leadership. Whatever the leader says is final and never open for debate, Amin’s rule was filled with violence to control the citizens. He was an unpredictable ruler who was led by his paranoia. He used his position of power to intimidate anyone who proved to be a hindrance. He was an unforgiving leader and would always find ways to get back at his enemies (Al Jazeera, 2008).

Authoritarian Leadership style also referred to as Autocratic leadership, is made up of a leader exerting total control over all decisions and not allowing the subordinate’s opinions. The leaders often decide according to how they feel, their beliefs, and their ideas. Leaders using this type of style are often dictators and runs a rigid environment where once a rule is broken or an objection is made, the guilty party is jailed or executed depending on what the leader desires. Though it does not encourage creativity, it allows for a quick decision-making process and a transparent chain of command.

When it came to ruling over Uganda, Idi Amin had a military background that motivated him to be ruthless. He established the State Research Bureau (SRB) and the Public Safety Unit (PSU), whose main task was to get rid of anyone who opposed his regime (HISTORY.COM EDITORS, 2009). In 1976, Amin welcomed Palestinian terrorists who had hijacked Air France Flight from Israel, who was later rescued by the Israeli commandos. This prompted Amin to order the execution of the airport personnel as the act of Israeli commandos had put his name to shame.

Ethical (Light) leader

Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) is one of the most talked-about leaders in history. He was a civil-rights activist and a Baptist minister who led the civil rights movement in the United States. King became one of the leaders who led the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955, which lasted for 381 days. His famous, ‘I Have a Dream Speech’ delivered at a rally in Washington D.C in 1963 not only marked him as a master orator, but it also put pressure on the administration to push for civil rights law to pass through congress (‘How Did Martin Luther King’s Vision Change the World?’, n.d.). He also fought for the voting rights of the Black people and lobbied for nonviolent protests. He led the political march from Selma, Alabama, to the state’s capital on March 21-25, 1965 (Wallenfeldt, 2020).

King was a Transformational leader whose main objective was to ensure African-Americans had equal rights as the whites in their own country. He challenged the existence of segregation and injustice in the nation and fought for democracy and racial justice. He empathized with victims of police brutality and encouraged his followers to always have hope amid everything that occurred. He discouraged his followers from using violence while protesting, as this was an inhumane act. He was also a courageous leader who never shied away from risks about the protests they held.

Transformational leadership is a leadership style that governs change. Leaders using this style often encourage, motivate, and inspire subordinates to create and embrace change that will affect their future. Transformational leaders are expected to have authentic, strong leadership skills that will inspire subordinates. They lead by example and set moral standards to be emulated by their juniors. The leaders are also expected to be able to connect with their followers and serve as role models.

Martin Luther King, Jr. was always at the forefront during the protests. He had a dream and took the initiative to set it in motion. As a minister, it was easy for him to motivate people to join him in the fight against segregation of the Black people. His main objective was to transform the oppressive and racial administration and ensure that Black people felt safe in their own country. The fact that King placed the people’s safety and needs before his own proved him to be an ethical leader. His religious background also plays a part in this. He believed in nonviolence and encouraged peaceful protests as he thought that violence was an unjust action.

King’s resilience and determination made him highly respected. People found it easier to relate to him as he exhibited selflessness. His commanding presence brought together people from all over the state, and his desire to change motivated people to join him. Martin Luther King, Jr. did not tolerate violence as he believed evil could not be overcome by evil. He was all for peace, and this is one of the many characteristics that set him apart. During the Selma March, he appealed to Americans of conscience to join him, and thousands of people responded to the call.

In this assignment I will be looking at different leadership styles and the factors that may affect a leader’s choice of style, I will then discuss my own leadership style, how it is affected by my organization’s culture and how I could look to enhance my performance as a leader in the future.

There are three key leadership theories, John Adair’s action-centered leadership model, Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s leadership continuum, and Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model. Each of the models looks at the effects that different leadership styles have on the team and the output of work, and how a leader needs to be flexible to meet both of them.

John Adair’s model states that to be an effective leader a person must meet three needs, the task, the team, and the individual. For the most part, a leader must position themselves in the middle of the three rings for a team to run smoothly and to deadlines, however, they need to be able to move between all three rings depending on the needs of the task, team, or individual. For instance, a leader may need to become more task-focused when against a tight deadline or to achieve higher quality, but if a leader were task-focused all the time the team may start to feel unappreciated which would cause low morale amongst the group. A team-focused leader may be overly concerned with creating a harmonious team, which would create a pleasant working environment but could lead to deadlines not being met. Although morale may be high within the team an individual may feel as though they are overlooked. If a leader focused on the individuals each team member could become well developed in the skills they are naturally good at which could lead to a highly skilled team, however, tasks that are mundane may get overlooked and the team may not work well together as a whole.

Another of the key leadership models is Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model, this model looks at how the knowledge and capabilities of a team member combined with their motivation affects how they should be best managed.

Within each quadrant there is a different leadership style, this style affects and is also affected by the competence and motivation of the team members. For instance, if there were a less competent member of the team with low motivation they would require more of a ‘selling/coaching style of leadership, the leader would need to be highly supportive and highly directive. In comparison, a long-serving member of the team who is fully trained and highly motivated would need more of a ‘delegating’ leadership style meaning they need less support and direction. If a leader did not get the right balance between directing, coaching, supporting, or delegating they may find team members would slide back down the scale as they may get overlooked for future training, begin to feel unmotivated or that were viewed as incompetent.

In order to look at my leadership style and learn how I can further develop it to improve myself, I have asked some of my team members to complete various surveys as well as completing them myself. The first survey I completed myself was based on the Tannenbaum/Schmidt leadership model. The results of this showed my natural style was less ‘tell’ and ‘join’ and more ‘sell’ and ‘consult’. The description of these traits by the survey is that, as a ‘sell’ leader, I like to be in control of my team and direct how things work but I also like to explain why. For the most part, I would agree with this as I try to get my team on board with the decisions I have made by explaining the consequences and my plan of action. The ‘consult’ leadership style is based on working with the team and their ideas to move forward but whilst understanding the responsibility and decision-making that lies with the leader. I would also agree with this statement, with my current team I try to give them choices which jobs they do within set tasks.

However, there are times when a ‘tell’ or ‘join’ type of leadership may be the more applicable, being aware of when I need to be flexible with my leadership style is essential. For instance, when there is a tight deadline or a quality issue it may be necessary to take on more of a ‘tell’ type leadership to prevent a situation from getting out of hand, or to be able to gather any evidence needed to relate figures to management level. However, when trying to develop staff into cell leader positions or when working with a very experienced team it could be beneficial to take more of a ‘join’ role.

The results from my surveys are quite interesting as the scores from my team show a clear trend in my leadership style, predominately ‘telling’ and ‘selling’. Both of these leadership styles are high task focus, which I agree I am. My own score is fairly even across the table however this I not reflected in the scores from my team members, this shows how I am viewing my actions and how my team views them is quite different. The first thing I need to do to enhance my leadership is to take more time to motivate some of my skilled staff who are lacking motivation and give them more opportunities to lead themselves and take ownership. As I currently have quite a small team it is difficult to create an autonomous environment where people can take ownership as everybody is dependent on each other, however, to develop the team’s skills for when we are busier I should use this time to delegate to my more skilled team members.

I feel my leadership style is governed slightly by the nature of the industry I am in, often being asked to produce work in a short space of time can mean the team has to be very driven to complete on time, from my scores I can see that I need to try to give the team the opportunities to develop pride in what they are doing so they feel empowered to motivate themselves.

Positivity of narcissistic leadership

Although the idea that narcissistic leaders may sound quite controversial since leaders who are “principally motivated by their own egomaniacal needs and beliefs” (Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006, p. 629) cannot perform well, many scientists point out to the evidence that such leaders possess essential skills including perceptions of charisma, vision, and performance (Judge et al., 2009).

There are quite a few arguments in favour of narcissistic leadership. It is true that these individuals come across as assertive, competent, and likeable at short-term acquaintance (Back et al., 2013) hence they tend to stand out as leaders in leaderless groups (Brunell et al., 2008; Nevicka, De Hoogh, Van Vianen, Beersma, & McIlwain, 2011). Also, narcissistic individuals manage to convince others of their ideas better since they tend to be perceived as more enthusiastic (Goncalo, Flynn, & Kim, 2010).

How do they do that? Evidently, narcissists’ use of self-promotional tactics (e.g., self-enhancement and self-praise) gives them some leverage to impress others (see Paulhus, Westlake, Calvez, & Harms, 2013, for the case of job interviews). For instance, a recent research demonstrates that presidential narcissism was well linked to such markers of success, such as superior overall greatness, public persuasiveness, and crisis management (Watts et al., 2013). Another study conducted on 200 military cadets showed that ratings of emergent leadership were correlated in a good way with the bright side of narcissism, in particular high levels of self-confidence and self-esteem (Paunonen, Lönnqvist, Verkasalo, Leikas, & Nissinen, 2006). Overall, we can see that due the ability of narcissists present themselves as charismatic, energetic, and engaging, they seem to handle fairly easily such things as taking bold actions (Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007), attracting followers (R. Hogan & Hogan, 2001), and pursuing celebrity in the media (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2017).

In 2004 Maccoby defined the ideas of productive narcissism. Productive narcissists are “not only risk takers willing to get the job done but also charmers who can convert the masses with their rhetoric” (Maccoby, 2004, p. 2). There are two parts that need mentioning. One of them is called great vision when leaders can see so called ‘big picture’ and the other one is defined by a number of followers. In other words, the ability to mobilise their supporters towards a goal. Interestingly, the research established a curvilinear relationship emerged according to which ‘leaders with a

midrange level of narcissism exhibited greater effectiveness than those with low or high levels of narcissism’ (Grijalva, Harms, Newman, Gaddis, & Fraley, 2015). This is a particularly good piece of evidence towards the idea of narcissism positivity, however, at the same time supporting a well-known saying ‘everything is good in moderation’. This evidence also suggests that too much of this trait do not necessarily contribute to leadership effectiveness (Grijalva et al., 2015). Last but not least, there is an important question to ask: What determines how followers evaluate their leader’s effectiveness? In order to answer this question, more recent study by Nevicka and colleagues indicated that leader visibility constitutes an important moderator, affecting the strength of the relationship between narcissism and leader effectiveness (Nevicka, Van Vianen, De Hoogh, & Voorn, 2018). It is very well observed when followers had fewer opportunities to see their leaders (e.g., due to increased hierarchical distance from them), narcissism was a positive predictor of perceived leadership effectiveness. On the other hand, when followers had more opportunities to observe their leaders (e.g., due to reduced hierarchical distance from them), the positive relationship no longer continued.

Negativity of narcissistic leadership

It is important to say that regardless all the possible benefits of narcissistic leadership described above, we must look deeper and research all potential threats. Recent

research conducted in Germany examined narcissism’s maladaptive value in the workplace (Germain, 2018). It suggests that leaders who take over the interests and needs of their followers are likely to pose a threat to the organization they lead (Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006). According to the literature research there are plenty of examples that suggest that although narcissistic individuals can create favourable impressions in the short run, but in the long run their aggressive, arrogant, and combative characteristics come into play (Küfner, Nestler, & Back, 2013; Leckelt, Küfner, Nestler, & Back, 2015). Besides the fact that narcissistic leaders make quite dangerous decisions including high-risk investment initiatives, abusive supervision, follower job dissatisfaction (for a recent review, see Braun, 2017), such individuals lose their attractiveness as a leader quite quickly (Ong, Roberts, Arthur, Woodman, & Akehurst, 2016). Some researchers call this brief period of charismatic and visionary perception as “honeymoon period” of leadership (Ong et al., 2016, p. 237). Having said that, some narcissists actually manage to maintain their leadership appeal, but they still negatively influence their team’s performance. A good example would be preventing teams from proper exchange of information (Nevicka, Velden, De Hoogh, & Van Vianen, 2011).

Speaking of day-to-day operations, narcissism has been shown to predict counterproductive work behaviour (CWB; for a meta-analysis see, O’Boyle, Forsyth, Banks, & McDaniel, 2012), defined as behavior that voluntarily harms (or, intends to harm) organisations and/or its members, such as coworkers, customers, and clients (Spector et al., 2006). In 2015 other researchers Grijalvaand Newman also found that narcissism is the dominant predictor of CWB. Another study has shown that followers exposed to leader narcissism feel prone to exhibit supervisor-targeted CWB because they experience envious feelings and, thus, seek to harm their leaders (Braun, Aydin, Frey, & Peus, 2016). To sum up, these results illustrate that leader narcissism may play a substantial role in influencing the quality of the relationships with followers.

According to Grijalva & Harms narcissistic leadership can have negative effects on the organization’s health, performance, and efficiency (Grijalva & Harms, 2014). In particular, narcissistic leaders demonstrated such behaviour as organizational risk-taking (Buyl, Boone, & Wade, 2017), corporate tax sheltering (Olsen & Stekelberg, 2016), financial misreporting (Chen, 2011), and leaders’ (excessive) compensation (O’Reilly, Doerr, Caldwell, & Chatman, 2014). What is more, there is significant evidence suggesting that firms led by such individuals performed quite poorly. For instance, a study on 604 Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) documented that CEO narcissism was positively associated with various indicators of firm overinvestment, such as excessive research and development and mergers and acquisitions expenditures (Ham, Seybert, & Wang, 2013).

Overall, while some researchers believe narcissistic leaders with their characteristic egocentrism may bring progress, others would argue that such leaders might do more harm than good (Anninos, 2018). Or, as pointed out by Rubinstein (2017, p. 175), the narcissistic leader can be characterized as an “attention-seeking child” who is not well equipped with inter-personal skills to make collaboration work.

We observe now a day’s business leaders get involved in some ethical and unethical practices We know according to the law of Karma the activities of a person are adjusted by the outcomes. Success and failure depend on the karma of leader. Leader must adopt a mission to create and sustain value. Spiritual principles are the missing constituent in most past approaches of leadership which shows innovative progress in inner mind of the leaders. Bad Karma of leader like, cruelty, lie, partiality, hatred, intolerance, violence, cheating and gross exploitation of basic human rights are to be replaced by good karma truthfulness, honesty, compassion, love, creativity, innovation, kindness, integrity, peace, wisdom, spirituality, respect, tolerance, self-reliance, justice, etc. Leader’s Consciousness will not be in the grip of blind desires. His consciousness will be pure. Leader will be guided by spiritual unattachment. Unity of consciousness is needed. The leader will find that there is but one absolute existence. The true knowledge of the leader comes from the perception of self, the true spiritual knowledge. Leadership karma will be guided by spirituality for higher motivation which will help attaining the ultimate truth of self-realization.

The present study supported the secondary knowledge, collected from the various sources. In the light of Indian Spiritual literature. Qualitative study will explain Corporate karma leadership, for attaining material success as well as the goal of peace and bliss for the leader, and his followers. With a value-based ethical organization structure, as a by-product of the true spirituality.

Ancient, primitive man had to work the whole day to gather food and other necessities of life. Their working is for sustenance of life. In advanced and complex industrialized civilization work in our life has become an important part. Our identity and purpose, as well as meaning of life, is also guided by work. Attitude to work, ethics of work are turning with a greater dimension that with integrity, loyalty, honesty, service to the God and society. Work ethics in corporate karma leadership shows the performance will be excellent and quality of work will be excellent for the better corporate achievements and sustainable social development.

Today’s leaders face steady argument and chaos throughout cultures and globalized markets. There is also the requirement for leaders to interact with a wide variety of, stakeholders including suppliers, customers, government and industry regulators, or employees from diverse multicultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. This is a monumental assignment as performance excellence depend on the corporation’s capacity to direct employee conduct in the direction of collective goals. Often, a company’s harmony depends on how intelligent the corporation is interpreting the dynamic world context in which it operates, how it makes the way it finds methods to include its knowledge of the global network in which it operates

Our karma, the work and the activities both physical and mental, guides our achievements and success. We know that work (karma) is the primary steps in spiritual development. Karma, for instance corporate karma will be guided by spirituality for supreme quality leadership. Good habit formation with proper work on oneself for better psyche, better concentration, better orientation and better self-management goes with corporate goals. Profit and wealth maximization are the byproduct of good Karma. General individual can earn Dharma, Artha, Kama Moksha, by following leaders performing good karma. Gita, Upanishads, Bhagabatam, ,Ramkrishna Vivekananda literature, shakta , Aurabindo literature care the supreme spiritual facts and are scientific and psychological approach in understanding the human mind and its applications in self-management and leadership.

‘Pure spiritual development finds expansion in character development, capacity to work together in team and love and sacrifices” (Ranganathananda 2007). Great Indian leaders are Guided by, and controlled by, spiritual ideas and principles. The individual atman assimilates into Brahman that is microcosm to macrocosm. Spiritual liberation in Advaita is the entire comprehension and awareness of oneness, that one’s unchanging Atman (soul) is the same as the Atman in absolutely everyone else, as well as being identical to Brahman. Spirituality is observed in the knowledge and realization of God, Pawar(2013) study showed that “individual spirituality will moderate the effect of workplace spirituality aspects on work attitudes” .Transformational leadership behavior as a source of intrinsic motivation (Lee & Koh, 2001)

“Spirituality is a hot topic of research in recent times in the management arena” (Chawla & Guda, 2010,). Accordingly, this systematic review of the than has been previously attempted in the higher education context. Literature reconciles diverse viewpoints into a more cohesive conceptualization and definition 21st Century has certainly ignited a scholarly interest in Spirituality and Leadership (Cavanagh & Bandsuch, 2002; Milliman, Yang & Fry, 2018 transcendental self-concepts, important to the Chinese in the process between the spiritual leadership and employee outcomes. Other dimensions may also exist, for example, transcendental. Literature reconciles numerous viewpoints into an additional cohesive conceptualization and definition twenty first Century has definitely kindled a scholarly interest in Spirituality and Leadership (Cavanagh & Bandsuch, 2002; Milliman,Yang & Fry, 2018 transcendental self-concepts transcendental motivation toward the structure harmony (Vallejo,2008; Yang, 2004),

How leadership may deliver positive alternate that enables the corporation to enhance and be innovative inside the modern-day business environment. If there’s no leadership inside the corporation they will no longer can business within the way they desire and could be negative business activity instead.

Huang et al (2010) urged that participative leadership might influence work performance through completely different mediating mechanisms, that is, management (motivation-based) for social control subordinates and trust (relationship-based and exchange-based) for nonmanagerial subordinates. We tend to observe work which means, and self-concepts don’t lead to completely different work performances between social control and non-managerial subordinates. Leader’s spiritual belief is that faith in God and love. in time of loneliness he will explore relationships with everyone.

Abstract

A key concern today is the question about the Inclusive leadership in our nation’s primary schools as it increasingly relies on diverse learners, multidisciplinary teachers, and a community of different cultural heritage, and teachers. But simply throwing a mix of key elements of good schools together doesn’t guarantee qualitative cum productive performance of schools for society as well as country; it requires inclusive leadership — leadership that assures that all members feel they are treated respectfully and fairly, are valued and sense that they belong, and are confident and inspired.

In this study, an investigation was conducted for the needs and barriers of Inclusive leadership in primary schools. This study determined that why we need Inclusive leadership in primary schools? and what are the key barriers to instrument these approaches in schools? An interpretive approach to a case study was in place, where experience has been gathered from an experienced head of schools. Apart from this exercise, some primary schools have been visited to get hand-on experiences regarding the requirement of Inclusive leadership and to validate the field experience for its barriers.

This case study considered advocacy exercises for the establishment of Inclusive leadership in primary schools of India. This study found that the establishment of Inclusive leadership in primary schools may play a vital role in quality education for learners and make a school democratic in manner.

To conclude, this study sought the needs and barriers to inclusive leadership that influence the school environment in becoming a democratic school. Finally, this study proposes that Inclusive leadership ought to be in place in primary school to help the learner in many aspects of their future life as a responsible citizen of the country.

Introduction

The emergence of democratic schools and the dominance of inclusive leadership and are the most significant developments of the 21st century in democratic countries of this world. The new role that inclusive leadership might play, the new gates it might open and the unknown world it might bring to light are the wombs of the future for democratic primary schools.

Inclusive leadership in primary schools eradicates negativism and develops a positive attitude in thoughts, words, and deeds for students as well as teachers too. It develops self-esteem, respect for others, the strength of character, moral and human values. It helps us in contributing skills and energy towards creating a better society and builds a good personality.

Inclusive leadership in primary schools teaches the art of leading successful leadership and transforms value-based behavior among learners. It encourages creativity and positivity, the culture of sharing, collaboration for professional development, humility and visible commitment for schools.

Inclusive leadership in primary school can be utilized in several ways to bring academic excellence. Some of an important way maybe –

• To motivate Teachers: – Whether your goal is to establish a good school, retain good teachers in school, bring learning environment in class or learn a new language, lessons from Inclusive leadership offer tips for getting motivated for teachers.
• Improvement in social leadership skills among students: – It doesn’t matter if you’re a teacher, students, an activist, an office manager or a volunteer at a local youth group, having good social leadership skills will probably be essential at some point in your life. Not everyone is a born leader, but a few positive attitudes can help to improve social leadership and it may come from Inclusive leadership.
• Learn better to understand diverse community: – Much like nonverbal communication, the ability to understand own emotions and the emotions of those around us play an important role in your relationships and professional life. Inclusive leadership may help a lot in this domain.

Literature Review

Numerous academic disciplines are interested in leadership studies as it is a critical underlying factor in achieving the goals and objectives of the democratic school. However, findings from an uncountable number of leadership-based research suggest an overt emphasis on leader behaviors much more than the effects of leader behaviors on their subordinates (Hollander, Park, Boyd, Elman, & Ignani, 2008). This supports the position of Burns (1978) who noted that leadership behaviors vis-à-vis the attendant characteristics should not be separated from the needs and goals of their follows. It is therefore important to take a close look at a leadership style in primary schools that is more focused on needs and in developing future leaders for society as well country too. Also, in the ever-changing school environment, calls for the type of leadership that can adjust, adapt, be flexible and see things from all-inclusive perspectives have become critical. This is so because organizations’ key success factors are not dependent on their practices and procedures, but by leaders who display characteristics of inclusion (Janakiraman, 2011).

In development theory and attendant studies, the concept of inclusiveness is used to espouse the need to actively involve the poor and less privileged in developmental decision-making, implementation and execution processes (Wuffli, 2016). Specifically, inclusive leadership is used to depict leaders who encourage and value contributions from others, thereby shaping the belief system of their subordinates that they are genuinely appreciated (Nembhard & Edmundson, 2006). Inclusive leadership ascribes so much emphasis on ‘doing things with people, and not to people’ (Hollander et al., 2008). In essence, Carmeli, Reiter-Palmon & Ziv (2010) succinctly summarized inclusive leadership as a leadership style where leaders exhibit openness, accessibility, and availability in the course of interacting with their followers. Suffice to say that given the characteristics of the inclusive leadership style, subordinates are usually encouraged to speak up about situations in the workplace (Bowers, Robertson, & Parchman, 2012), knowing that their leaders are open to their suggestions, are accessible to discuss issues, and are readily available to work with them in achieving organizational goals and objectives. Interestingly, it is critical to note that some studies have examined how inclusive leadership

can exert organizational outcomes. These studies were done in educational (Ryan, 2006; Garrison-Wade, Sobel, & Fulmer, 2007; Rayner, 2009; Fierke, Lui, Lepp, & Baldwin, 2014) and religious (Echols, 2009) settings. Though very few studies have been done to find the needs and barriers regarding the Inclusive leadership in primary schools therefore it caught my attention to understand and connect these themes with field experiences.

Needs and barriers

Inclusive leadership seeks as a leadership style as exhibit openness, accessibility and availability in the course of interacting with their followers, encouraged to speak up about situations in the workplace, accessible to discuss issues, and readily available to work with the team to achieve organizational goals and objectives.

The leadership style is intended to complement, not to replace traditional leadership. It does not seek to deny the importance of studying how things go wrong, but rather to emphasize the importance of using the scientific method to determine how things go right. In primary school, inclusive leadership can be both an applied and a theoretical subject, it can be utilized in several ways in schools like value integration, bringing harmony among students as well as teachers and promote learning in class, etc.

Needs

In primary school, inclusive leadership may teach the art of leading a successful professional life and transforms valued behavior among students. It brings about harmony and national integration. It encourages creativity and positivity in a school environment, creating a culture of accumulation, possessiveness, selfishness, and greed. These ultimately stifle the inherent qualities of an inclusive leader that may promote collaborative learnings in primary school.

• To Develop the Spirit of Leadership: In a democratic school, we need in all the sphere of school life such a member (Teachers and Students) who may have a sense of duty and an ability to make decisions. In the system of inclusive leadership, each member of the school is allowed to work and through practice, the capacity of leadership is also created in them.
• Spirit of Co-operation: Practice of inclusive leadership in school may develop the spirit of cooperation among teachers as well as students. It will help them as a good citizen as well as a good society member for society or country.
• Strengthening of Ties between Students and Teachers: Through inclusive leadership the teacher simply gives instructions and the students help in all the work. Hence, the students and the teachers become fully acquainted with the personality of each other. Here, Students may get an opportunity to inculcate in them the feeling of healthy relations between the teachers and the students.
• Sense of Responsibility towards Government: Inclusive leadership develops in the child and teachers a spirit of self-control. By working freely, they may realize his responsibility. They may understand the scope of their rights and duties. Hence, they also may come to realize their responsibility towards the government and their system, that is the crying need of an hour.
• Visible commitment for an ideal school: Inclusive leader articulates an authentic commitment to diversity, challenge the status quo, hold others accountable and make diversity and inclusion a personal priority.
• Humility at the workplace: As Inclusive leaders are modest about capabilities, admit mistakes, and create the space for others to contribute. They show awareness of personal blind spots as well as flaws in the system and work hard to ensure meritocracy. They demonstrate an open mindset and deep curiosity about others, listen without judgment, and seek with empathy to understand those around them. All these characteristics of an inclusive leader may help to stop humility at schools.

The above-given needs may be some important need behind the advocacy of inclusive leadership in primary schools.

Barriers

During the listening, the experiences of experienced teachers in the field felt that there are some barriers to implement this inclusive leadership concept in primary schools. Some of the key barriers are hereunder –

• No Specific policy for school head: During the field visit, it has been observed that there is no specific policy has been planned for school leadership. Without a proper policy and its efficient implementation mechanism, it will not be possible to implement inclusive leadership in primary schools.
• Too much vacant post of Head Teachers: To implement inclusive leadership in schools, it needs full-fledged Head Teachers. In filed ground realities is that there are too many vacant posts are there for Head Teachers, without a visionary HT it would be difficult to implement such concept in schools.
• Lack of enough staff in primary schools: Inclusive leadership may implement only if schools have enough staff. Nowadays due to some policies like RTE, there are some vacant positions in primary school due to the student-teacher ratio and some other factors. In such a situation this concept may not be positioned in primary school.
• No reading culture in school: Reading culture may help to bring new and innovative practice inside the school. Most of the schools have no library and no enough books in the same. So, therefore, reading culture is missing and this practice creating the hurdle to bring such concepts in primary schools.
• Lack of coordination among staff: Lack of coordination may be a reason being the successful implementation of inclusive leadership in schools. In most of the primary schools, there are very few staffs are there and there is a lack of coordination among them.
• Overloaded Teachers in Schools: During field visits is has been found that teachers are overloaded with departmental work. These works affect their work pretty much during school time. Most of the time they make the DAK for their officials for different purposes. These practices hamper the spirits of reading among them and they become tired after school.

So, Inclusive leadership may teach the art of leading a successful professional life and transforms valued behavior among students and teachers too. It may bring about harmony and national integration. It may encourage creativity and positivity in a school environment, creating a culture of accumulation, possessiveness, selfishness, and greed. ·

Therefore, Inclusive leadership in primary school is a relatively nascent field to develop the mindset for national integration through good schooling. Its emphasis on what goes right with quality education and explores the factors that make the life of students and teachers worth living, such as happiness, leadership, positive emotions, positive character strengths, and positive institutions. Hence, Inclusive leadership has a vital role in national integration and it may create good citizens for a progressive country.

REFERENCES

1. Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. Transaction Publishers.
2. Bowers, K. W., Robertson, M., & Parchman, M. L. (2012). How Inclusive Leadership Can Help Your Practice Adapt to Change: The most effective leaders realize that everyone’s input is valuable. Family Practice Management, 19(1), 8-11.
3. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. NY.
4. Carmeli, A., Reiter-Palmon, R., & Ziv, E. (2010). Inclusive leadership and employee involvement in creative tasks in the workplace: The mediating role of psychological safety. Creativity Research Journal, 22(3), 250-260.
5. Choi, S. B., Tran, T. B. H., & Park, B. I. (2015). Inclusive leadership and work engagement: mediating roles of affective organizational commitment and creativity. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 43(6), 931-943.
6. Clarke, S. (2010). An integrative model of safety climate: Linking psychological climate and work attitudes to individual safety outcomes using meta‐analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(3), 553-578.
7. Clarke, S. (2013). Safety leadership: A meta‐analytic review of transformational and transactional leadership styles as antecedents of safety behaviors. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86(1), 22-49.
8. Clarke, S., & Ward, K. (2006). The role of leader influence tactics and safety climate in engaging employees’ safety participation. Risk Analysis, 26(5), 1175-1185.
9. Conchie, S. M. (2013). Transformational leadership, intrinsic motivation, and trust: A moderated-mediated model of workplace safety. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18(2), 198-210.
10. Conchie, S. M., Taylor, P. J., & Donald, I. J. (2012). Promoting safety voice with safety-specific transformational leadership: The mediating role of two dimensions of trust. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17(1), 105-115.
11. Dahl, Ø., & Olsen, E. (2013). Safety compliance on offshore platforms: A multi-sample survey on the role of perceived leadership involvement and work climate. Safety Science, 54, 17-26.
12. Echols, S. (2009). Transformational/servant leadership: A potential synergism for an inclusive leadership style. Journal of Religious Leadership, 8(2), 85-116.
13. Fierke, K. K., Lui, K. W., Lepp, G. A., & Baldwin, A. J. (2014). Teaching Inclusive Leadership through Student-Centered Practices. Journal of the Academy of Business Education, 15, 51-65.
14. Flin, R., & Yule, S. (2004). Leadership for safety: industrial experience. Quality and Safety in Health Care, 13(2), ii45-ii51.
15. Fugas, C. S., Silva, S. A., & Meliá, J. L. (2012). Another look at safety climate and safety behavior: Deepening the cognitive and social mediator mechanisms. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 45, 468-477.
16. Garrison-Wade, D., Sobel, D., & Fulmer, C. L. (2007). Inclusive leadership: Preparing principals for the role that awaits them. Educational Leadership and Administration, 19, 117-132.
17. Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 161-178.
18. Hafford-Letchfield, T., Lambley, S., Spolander, G., & Cocker, C. (2014). Inclusive leadership in social work and social care. Policy Press.
19. Hartnell, C. A., Kinicki, A. J., Lambert, L. S., Fugate, M., & Doyle Corner, P. (2016). Do similarities or differences between CEO leadership and organizational culture have a more positive effect on firm performance? A test of competing predictions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(6), 846-861.
20. Hazy, J. K., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2013). Towards operationalizing complexity leadership: How generative, administrative and community-building leadership practices enact organizational outcomes. Leadership, 1742715013511483.
21. Hofmann, D. A., & Morgeson, F. P. (1999). Safety-related behavior as a social exchange: The role of perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(2), 286-296.
22. Hollander, E. P., Park, B. B., & Elman, B. (2008). Inclusive Leadership and Leader-Follower Relations: Concepts, Research, and Applications. The Member Connector, International Leadership Association.
23. Hon, C. K., Chan, A. P., & Yam, M. C. (2014). Relationships between safety climate and safety performance of building repair, maintenance, minor alteration, and Addition (RMAA) works. Safety Science, 65, 10-19.
24. Hult, G. T. M., Hurley, R. F., Giunipero, L. C., & Nichols, E. L. (2000). Organizational learning in global purchasing: A model and test of internal users and corporate buyers. Decision Sciences, 31(2), 293-325.
25. Inness, M., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Stride, C. B. (2010). Transformational leadership and employee safety performance: A within-person, between-jobs design. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(3), 279-290

Abstract

In this paper, the author conducts a study on the Battles of Samaria and Aphek between Ben Hadad and Ahab. These battles, which were won by the underdog, Ahad, using less Soldiers and equipment, which was a miracle from God even though King Ahad was wicked and ignored God’s word, which showed showing God’s good grace and patience. The author shows how this battle was relevant to Merida’s writings in which Merida considers four key points from the battles, its relevance today as we continue to see miracles, and how leadership styles of the two kings should be avoided because we need to respect and honor God.

It is always nice to have someone that has your back in a tight squeeze and that is what Ahab had in the Almighty God in his two battles with Ben-Hadad. Ahad had, what some would consider, obvious defeat coming and the Lord turned this obvious defeat into upset victories using under qualified soldiers bringing meaning to the term “less is more.” The author would like to get an understanding of God’s handling of the battles as they pertain to the importance they had on Merida in his text, the relevance of today, and the importance in leadership for the author in current and future stages.

Brief Summary of the Battles

The Battle of Samaria and Aphek were to battles that took place in Israel between Kings Ben Hadad and Ahab. In both battles King Ahab was under manned and equipped and considered giving into King Ben Hadad’s demands, but a prophet from God advised King Ahad of what God’s plan was and that he would be victorious following God’s plan, which King Ahab did and witnessed God’s miracles. Even though Ahab was an evil King, he still received favors from God.

Importance on Merida

The author found that Merida’s writings in the text provided some information that would show us how not to be if we were kings. According to Merida (2015, pg. 159), “Ahad and Ben Hadad are living illustrations of how not to live. They show us what “the fear of the Lord” doesn’t look like.” The author found that the importance of these writings from Merida in the Battles of Samaria and Aphek showed four points; 1) live your life God’s way, 2) God shows grace to everyone even sinners to show he is real, 3) God has the power to overcome any and all obstacles, and 4) believe in God’s word. These four points were shown in the two battles where God took charge and showed his power over the Armenian Army for the weaker Army of Israel.

Relevance Today

How God’s power was shown in the two battles still show relevance today. As Christians we must trust the word and believe in God’s abilities to help and heal his people. I am sure that most of us had a miracle or two in our life that we could not explain or we can explain it because it was the work of God and we believed. According to Pawlikowski, Wiechetek, Sak, & Jarosz (2015), “Beliefs in miracles, among them in miraculous healings, have been present in human culture since its origins. They have attracted the attention of ordinary people, artists and thinkers. For centuries, many philosophers, theologians and scientists offered their interpretations of miraculous healings. In contemporary times we can also observe the debate about miraculous healings in the medical society.” Today this healing from God is needed more than ever with the current viruses and diseases going around and medicine does not seem to be finding a way for a cure, but God’s miracles are. Such is a miracle for a woman who wanted to conceive. According to Robson (2015), “A hospital in the UK, for instance, recently reported the case of a woman who had experienced long-lasting fertility problems. She then discovered that she had a tumour between her rectum and her uterus, but before doctors could operate, she finally conceived. All went well and a healthy baby was delivered – only for the doctors to find that the cancer had mysteriously vanished during the pregnancy. Nine years later, she shows no sign of relapse.” Importance in Christian Leadership

The Battles of Ben Hadad and Ahab are important to the author because it shows how we as christian leaders must be and lead our people. The two kings show us how not to be as Christian leaders. As leaders we need to trust in God’s word and live, work, and grow by his values in our current and future occupations while understanding what a Christian leader is. According to Castillo (2018), “I began the search to understand what a Christian leader is and found four key elements in sequence – Calling, or doing the will of God, Competence, or doing what you do well, Confidence, or knowing what you can do by yourself and what you can do with God’s help, and Character, or living a life according to Old Testament and New Testament character values.” Working in God’s favor will show patience in leading at work and training employees to become better employees. This attitude of Christian leadership may be passed down from employee to employee to show a relaxed and caring work environment. This trickle down effect was evaluated by Wang, Xu, & Lui. According to Wang, Xu, and Liu (2018), “Drawing on social learning theory, we hypothesize that the ethical leadership of high-level managers could cascade to middle-level supervisors via its impact on middle-level supervisors.”

Conclusion

As the author looked at the Battles between Ben Hadad and Ahab, the author recognizes the power of God and that all things can be accomplished through him. Even though Ahab was an evil king God still used him and blessed him showing God’s good grace to all, no matter what they have done. This was also recognized by Merida showing God’s power and God’s keeping of his promises. God’s miracles are relevant today as we can see that miracles are still being accomplished in individuals wanting to conceive. The Lord is working wonders all the time as Christians we must work in his favor. Then said Jesus unto him, Except ye see signs and wonders, ye will not believe. (King James Bible, 1769/2020, John 4:48).

References

1. Castillo, M. (2018), The Four C’s of Christian Leadership, School of Business and Leadership, https://www.regent.edu/school-of-business-and-leadership/news-events/the-four-cs-of-christian-leadership/
2. King James Bible (2020) King James Bible Online https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Daniel-2-21/ (Original work published in 7169)
3. Merida, T., Platt, D., & Akin, D. (2015). Exalting Jesus in 1 and 2 Kings. B & H Publishing Group.
4. Pawlikowski, J., Et Al. (2015), Beliefs in Miraculous Healings, Religiosity, and Meaning in Life, Religions, 6, 13 – 1124, doi:10.3390/rel6031113
5. Robson, D. (2015), Health: Cancer: The Mysterious Miracle Cases Inspiring Doctors, Athena In formation Solutions, https://go-gale-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ps/i.do?p=STND&u=vic_liberty&id=GALE%7CA405549519&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon
6. Wang, Z., Xu, H., & Liu, Y. (2018), “How Does Ethical Leadership Trickle Down? Test of an Integrative Dual-Process Model, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol 153, Iss 3, DOI:10.1007/s10551-016-3361-x

Leadership is an exercise that boost the efforts of attempt of other people in attainment of success through social influence. Leadership develops from social influence. There are no particular personality traits, attributes or title that defines an effective leadership. Leadership requires a vision of success which is a goal so that they can influence others by maximizing the efforts to turn a vision into a reality.(1) . Leadership is about motivating people to do things which they have never considered themselves of doing. A good leadership can lead the organization towards success by thinking strategically on goals and strategy, granting resources and assessing the outcome. Leadership generates eagerness, loyalty and respect among people. Leadership is not about working on the top powerful position rather it is about guiding the person in powerful position.(2). Some define key characteristics of leadership is being able to present a vision which is the ability to see a big picture, empathy for society and peoples, self-confidence, determination to change or most importantly to start initial necessary change from themselves so that they make others willing to change for good cause. Most importantly, courage is necessary to take risks for the initiation of improvement in the people`s lives. Moreover, leader should be encouraging, supporting and courageous. That makes other willing to bring out the best in them which is more like challenging themselves to make better today than yesterday. Rewarding those who are doing better is also a characteristics of a good leadership.(3)

“Leadership is understanding the social situation finding its needs and working to meet the need of that situation.” Philip Selznick. Leadership is an important element as it finds the solution for numerous complications. It brings out the enthusiasm in all member of a group to attain goals together which would have been impossible by a single person. It brings many people together who have common goals and thoughts. To make it possible leaders informs about the goals to the people which attracts the interested one towards him and he motivates the group member for common goal uses the energy of that group members to attain that goal. Leadership is necessary in everyplace and everywhere. Different situation requires different types of leadership. In context of science, scientist achieve defined goals of shaping the behaviors of others without even making the group of people to work.

To be a leaders there are many things that they have to perform. At first, they have to make decision, brainstorm the strategies this is they think ahead, assess issues that are likely to happen. It is like preparing for the situation ahead that is likely to happen later. It is more like starting out for climbing the mountain, they have to think ahead and prepare for the necessary tools and equipment, prepare the route, study about the pitfalls and alternatives and finalize where they will wind up. There are lots of helping hands behind a successful leaders. In order to achieve goals compromise is a common activity among leaders when they attempt to confirm a delicate negotiation. They have to accept the request of others, manage and solve out the conflict in the workplace sometime create conflict in a healthy way so that it brings the better solution to a problem. They value the good work of the subordinates by giving rewards and motivating. In order to make a clear goals they give voice about the vision. If they create any problems while carrying out their vision they go for counselling and issue statement about decision. If they have to advocate about them and their action they take stands. A goal of a leader is accomplished because of the support and help from the followers. To consider the attainment of the goal with the help and support from the people as followers in the leadership activity the followers must be the willing individuals rather than victims, slaves or trussed puppets.(4)

There are not any defined capacities or qualities of good leaders. However, a leader with the following characteristics can be considered as an authentic leader.

• Being present: He is aware of the moment, connects with others, environment around people and present situation.
• Whole system awareness: He can see the big picture which is vision, give attention to details, and understand what is in the system what are interconnected with the system.
• Personal power: He can use the power to influence people to do activities that makes the world even better place.
• Suspension and letting go: He can analyze the situation, problems that may create and to postpone those activities.
• Compassion: He shows kindness and acceptance towards the hard work of the people.
• Dealing with dualities and paradoxes: He can think of the situation through multiple perspectives.
• Intention aligned with higher purpose: He has a passion for activity that has the greatest need in the world.
• Whole self-awareness: He knows what he is doing and observes owns activities from others point of view.
• Sense of humor: he is a light-hearted person. He does not takes others activities personally.(5)

After the capacities of the authentic leaders, leaders follow any one style from the following five leadership approach which are as follows;

• a. Trait approach: Those leaders who follow this approach rely on their intrinsic qualities, intelligence, self –confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. They are mainly focused on leaders and does not take the situation into account.
• b. Skills approach: These leaders have technical skill, conceptual skills and human skills. They have problem solving skills, social judgemental skills high IQ, experience from many results, motivation to tackle problems, committed for a good social cause. Scientists are leaders are trained on skill approach and they are best at it.
• c. Style approach: Different leaders have different style of leadership. Style approach is further divided into six leadership type. They are as follows,

1. Commanding leadership: They want their followers to do as they say. It is usually useful when there is a problem in employees and crisis to change.
2. Visionary leadership: They explain their vision to the people and organize people to achieve the goal. It is suitable when a clear direction is necessary.
3. Affiliative leadership: They keep the people in their first priority, create peace and develop emotional attachment. It works best when there is a need to motivate team members in stressful situation.
4. Democratic leadership: They make people participate and apply their suggestion in decision making. It is useful when there is a need for everyone`s involvement in decision making.
5. Pacesetting leadership: They keep high expectation from others and want others to perform like them. It is important to form a highly motivated and competent team to get quick results.
6. Coaching leadership: They teach people to prepare them for future. To develop long lasting strengths in employee and to motivate them.(6)

d. Situational approach: Leaders choose different leadership styles according to the situation. They are directive and supportive. This type of leadership is mostly found among the researchers and students who are assistants to the researchers.(6)

Science is the process which is developed through the interpretation of experimental and observational data applying theories and models in a fixed logical structure. Science is based on the empirical, theoretical and practical knowledge about the natural world given by the scientists after observation, explanation and prediction of real world. Science is such a field that research and teamwork is vital. Leadership provides vision to any teamwork in science that formulates the way the team and the team members should go in order to achieve the goals. Leadership is prominent in order to lead the team to the right direction. In past scientific discoveries were made because of the willingness to search for the new answers. Knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in oral tradition. Person who seek for the new answer led to the research and they were their own leaders. They worked to get the answer without knowing what the answer would be. Many of the scientific discoveries not successful as they did not achieve the goals. The leadership approach of that time was trait approach till 12th century. After that scientists shifted their focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). The scientific way traditional consideration changed to the emphasized experimentation and reason. There were not many discoveries and development during those period. Thus leadership is one of the key factor that would lead to the success of the team and the research.

But after 19th century Science became professionalized and institutionalized, it started to be incorporated in the society and its knowledge grew in the society. After that scientist adopted skills approach of leadership. Many of the scientists were successful like Nicolaus Copernicus for heliocentric model of solar system, James Clerk Maxwell developed single theory of electromagnetism, Big Bang Theory by Gorges Lemaitre. During the world war II nuclear fission developed by Otto Hahn was practically applied for radar and atom bomb development. Chien-Shiung Wu became the leader of the Manhattan Project by applying the skill approach and became successful in separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by gaseous diffusion. In chemistry, scientist applied the skill approach of leadership and they studied the work of the previous scientists, the major breakthrough was the physical modelling of DNA structure by Francis Crick 1953, Miller –Urey experiment in the understanding of the basic constituent of proteins and simple amino acids. In Geology, scientists only studied about the one part like about the rocks but with the leadership that emerged from the team work they have developed plate tectonics. Now they study the Earth as a planet.

In biology and medicine the research and science were mainly focused on the curiosity of the researcher like Louis Pasture develop Rabies vaccine and invented pasteurization to prevent the spread of disease from food. In 20th century Human genome project was successful and practical because of the team work. They applied situational approach of leadership. In ecology, scientist followed the view of nature in general (Darwin`s Theory). But later in 1930 Arthur Tansley and other developed the ecosystem ecology field with physiological concepts of energy and techniques of field biology that is still in progress and application. This was successful because of the visionary leadership. In social sciences, scientists applied the situational leadership skills to use the successful scientific method into physical science. In political science, scientists studied the behavior of the people, the king, the state, the government superintendents, courtiers, enemies, invaders and cooperation in group in interactive and linear way and they were successful in determining how the political world works. They were successful in their study and research which is still in use to make the comparative political analysis, peace studies and conflict analysis. In terms of linguistics science, scientist only studied the differences between the different languages. But now that way of study has been changed and scientists work in a team to determine how languages change over time by the collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.

In recent decades, science has moved forward and has advanced in several ways. People of modern age are almost dependent on the science and its discoveries. These success are possible because the leader in the different sector of science applied various leadership skills when and where necessary to lead people to such discoveries. Science has advanced in every field like in physics, chemistry, biology, geology, economics, astronomy, medicine, ecology, psychology, sociology, anthropology etc. The credit of development is because of the leadership and teamwork. Of course the science is a research and innovation the top talented person are believed to perform better. Leaders are scientists who have completed many research, learned from the experience and result, have enormous knowledge about the subject, studied the subject deeply. They have understood the possible conflict that might arise between the team members, within team. They understand the conflict in the workplace and deal with it, manage conflict as a leader so that none of them have to lose like win-win for everyone. Though there might be the conflict they motivate and encourage everyone so that the team becomes productive to get the fruitful results and achieve goals. They have studied the environmental and social condition and understand the problems and outlined the solution. Main thing is that they develop the vision of the solution. In order to get the solution he alone is not enough, so that he presents his vision to get the attention and enthusiasm from the possible followers and team members who have the similar goals. Study has shown that the scientists are determined, consistent, have skills, good communication approach with the team members and other people. Now a days, scientists work in various government and non-government they certainly have positional power and develop numerous network which they can use to inspire and motivate followers. Scientist are most importantly determined persons they rely on facts and experiment. They have developed certain power of influence with their works and contribution to the society. Nowadays, scientists create and maintain vision that can inspire several people. Overall nowadays scientists follow skilled and situational approach of leadership with a well study and analysis of the effect of their act and activities, others person point of view.

Moreover, networking is the foundation of new innovation. Like Prof. Nicki Packer who was a talented person was looking after her children after being mother leaving the science and research field. But due to her talent, passion for research and due to her earlier work she had founded many network she was able to come back to the research and played an important part in being a leader and a team member to establish Australian Proteome Analysis Facility. She is working on the application of glycans, their roles on cancer, therapeutics and microbial infection. She is an example of skill approach leadership that led to such discoveries and innovation. She is a leading leader in bioinformatics and biochemistry.

Another perfect example of leadership approach that lead to the foundation of innovation is Assoc. Prof. Joanne Jamie. She used the soft communication skills respecting their ethics and moral to influence lots of Aboriginal people to take and promote education through coaching leadership. Aboriginal people wanted their children to study like other children but their tradition and culture did not allow that. In such situation Joanne Jamie gave vision to them. She used the real situation to change the perception of those people to go to the hospital. She inspired and influenced them for the good cause. She is working in the discoveries of the medicine. She studied the environment of the Aboriginal people, their problems and went to help them with the vision respecting them. She did not let to arise the ethical issues as she respected their way and culture. Ethics is an important part while considering the innovation and research. She is a successful leader leading an inspiring innovation. It shows that scientists regard question about values and science is relevant to make moral and ethical decision.

Ethics are the important part in research and innovation. One has to responsible while conducting the research. They should not harm any living beings to get their work complete neither they should forget the moral dimensions. If a leaders is thinks ethically and works on the same way then he has many opportunities for the effectiveness of his work. He gets support from every place and everyone.

Another important trait of leaders in science that lead to the success in the innovation of science field is Building and maintaining of the team. Science is about research, skill and talent. It is a competitive field as well. Every day there is news about the new discoveries and new way to see a certain phenomenon. In such environment to get the top result in no time leaders must chose his team members wisely those who share the common goals and vision and are, motivated towards the goal. To get the best people as the team member one has to have good method to influence them. They have to engage proactively with the people, should keep their ego aside, make the team interactive so that opinion from different points of view can be understood, show they empathy , build coalitions and alliances with the team members, provide reciprocation, encourage commitments and consistency, building trust and relationship with the team members, led by example and being influenceable. Dr. Amin Besehsti used such approach to get the best team members in his big data project. He is Successful in his vision.

To be successful the nature of the vision of leaders play an important roles in achieving the goals. That is their vision should be achievable. It should have the characteristics of SMART. It should be specific so that the probability of attaining success will increase. The goal of the vision should be measurable that is it should state the time when it is going to complete. The goal should be attainable that is realistic, with the investment of time money, effort it could be achievable. The goal should be relevant to the field, research and the goal of vision. Time is everything, so the work to achieve the goal should be timed. Deadline to the goal should be set, and the work that needs to be done within the deadline should be completed in time rather than procrastinating. After applying all the smart rules in vision it will be easier to attain clear and realistic goals.

In the other hand, Scientist are human too. To reach to the conclusion, they make mistakes while analyzing and recording data or they even fake data which is a scientific fraud. But these fraud and errors can be pointed out by its principal of verification of independent replication of data. It’s the beauty of science. Thus, Leadership is very crucial in science. Leaders in science should have tremendous amount of patience to understand the details. Science can help to predict about the outcomes of the various actions which provide the deeper view of the consequences of the actions of our choices. Science can help to respect values and make moral and ethical decisions. Science has its own importance. Absolute honesty is necessary about the obtained data in science. On resolving logical contradictions intellectual honesty is necessary. Science is such a field where new evidences are common, so for the contradictory evidences scientist should be open and ready to modify their ideas. These are considered as the important values in scientist to progress science.(7). Negotiation is also crucial part in research to get the resources for research, to fit, support and to get the strategic position for personal and career development. Negotiation can help both the researcher and the research institution. For organization negotiation can help to prevent further negotiation which could arise due to the perceptions of injustice or dissatisfaction after establishing structures and systems that are comprehensible and transparent to researcher. While for the researcher it can led the organization to act more flexible and efficient as well as organization can facilitate for relieving the fear and worries of speaking out and initiating behaviors. This could be fruitful to work cooperatively between the researcher and research institution or organization(8)

Hence, to conclude leadership is of various types and different types of leadership approach is suitable in different situation. Leadership is an ability to influence relation or behavior of other people.(9) Now, the scientific ideas and knowledge are shared all over the world right after the finding of such ideas which is possible because of the good leadership in different branch of science. Leadership role brought science to this position today. The vision and thinking presented by the leaders are inspiring and motivating that grabs the attention and interest of many peoples. Unlike previous forms of science where the leaders researched because of their own personal interest. Nowadays, leaders research in their field after understanding the need and situation of the society. So that their work can at least minimize the certain existing problems. The right direction provided by the right leadership in the scientific field lead to the innovation in scientific fields. The achievement in science is the result of the good leadership. Leadership skills are developed over time they are not gifted. Leaders develop their distinct character of honesty, integrity, self-confidence, inspiring qualities, committed, passionate, good communicator, creative and innovative and showing empathy. Leaders have directed towards innovation after learning, teaching, observing, practicing and training nurturing and developing their vision.(10)

References

1. Kruse K. What is leadership. Forbes Magazine. 2013;3.
2. Lawn J. What is Leadership? Food Management. 2013;48(8):6.
3. What is leadership? Journal of Pediatric Nursing. 2006;21(6):456-7.
4. What Is Leadership? Princeton
5. Oxford: Princeton
6. Oxford: Princeton University Press; 2010. 18 p.
7. Avolio BJ, Gardner WL. Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The leadership quarterly. 2005;16(3):315-38.
8. Bjugstad K, Thach EC, Thompson KJ, Morris A. A fresh look at followership: A model for matching followership and leadership styles. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management. 2006;7(3):304.
9. Quinn H. What is science? Physics Today. 2009;62(7):8-9.
10. Reif JAM, Brodbeck FC. Initiation of negotiation and its role in negotiation research: Foundations of a theoretical model. Organizational Psychology Review. 2014;4(4):363-81.
11. Elson P. Recommended reading: Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and practice by Peter G Northouse. Nursing Management. 2009;16(3):9-.
12. What are the characteristics of a good leader?(Quo Vadis?). (2012). Clinical Chemistry, 58(12), 1736.

Teamwork between individuals in a firm are foundations for corporations. Assembling efficient teams can increase productivity, achieve higher synergy and gain broader perspectives. Nevertheless, teams are not always effective; it’s benefits can only be reaped if the group has trust, common goals and compatible personalities necessary for achieving high performance.

THE SITUATION

The article, ‘Leading in Hostile environment’, presents difficulties in leadership in an unamicable environment. “Medical One… largest multispecialty healthcare practice” having “numerous regional clinics… employed more than 13,000 employees… 900 physicians” were bought by “Healthcare Plus… smaller but more financially sound practice” (page 1). Though Medical One was in a financial crisis where debts overrun income, the employees of Medical One were still resentful to being purchased by a smaller company. The two company’s differences in practice, with Medical One, priding themselves for “providing extremely high healthcare services” and Healthcare Plus rumoured being cost-cutting orientated, further fuelled a feeling of bitterness in Medical One employees as they believe that “lower costs equates to lower-quality health care” (page 1). Hence, the merger resulted in Medical One’s employees feeling angry and misplaced, affecting the efficiency and performance of teamwork with Healthcare Plus employees.

CREATION OF INGROUPS/OUTGROUPS

The different opinions of how a healthcare company should run, created ingroups and outgroups between the employees of healthcare Plus and Medical One. Ingroups are formed when individuals are able to define themselves within a group (Otten & Epstude 2006). Employees of Medial One have defined themselves in terms of their history (working for Medical One) and having the same perception of the quality they must provide (Otten & Epstude 2006). Additionally, Medical One employees’ firm belief that cutting costs means reducing quality of service (whereas Healthcare Plus believed that cost-cutting is necessary), created difference in moralities (principles distinguishing right and wrong). This morality-based ingroups, expressed by Weisel and Bohn in article ‘“Ingroup love” and “outgroup hate” in intergroup conflict’, will result in stronger emotions and intolerance towards outgroups (Weisel & Bohm 2015), presenting the ‘us’ vs ‘them’ mentality. A more apparent display of negative emotions towards the perceived outgroup members is seen as (Healthcare Plus employees) they avoiding to support the ideas they presented (Weisel & Bohm 2015) – ‘many of the managers were resistant to the ideas’ (page 3). This division, between members of the group, results in tension and hostility.

5-STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

This divided relationship between members will also prolong the storming stage of the 5-stage model of group development as each group will be more assertive of their opinions (Weisel & Bohm 2015; Toggl n.d.). Increased number and magnitude of conflicts will be seen, as they don’t possess acceptance and collaboration necessary to move on to the norming stage (Abudi, G. 2010).

FACTORS EFFECTING TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

Although the scenario presents a group setting, many theories regarding teams are also applicable.

Context

A healthy climate of trust is absent in this group as there are segregation of beliefs between Medical One and Healthcare Plus employees. This mistrust roots from Medical One employees fearing Healthcare Plus’s lower cost policies will result in lower quality of health care, making them lose their reputation of having high quality services. Mistrust between members will lead to cautious activities (concerned others will take advantage) and deteriorates good decision making (Shagholi et al. 2010). Members will be less willing to take risks and commit to leader’s goals, leading to inefficiencies in performance (Robbins et al. 2016).

Process

Hostility between members were formed as factors e.g. having a common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, team identity, team cohesion and similar mental models, were impaired.

Due to team disarray and interpersonal conflicts, a common mission is not developed, hence clear establishment strategies regarding what needs to be completed and how to improve, were not present. These interpersonal tension and no common goal, encouraged a divided feeling; resulting in low team efficacy and non-cohesive members (Robbins et al. 2016; Hirokawa & Rost 1992).

The mental model of believing “Lower costs equates to lower-quality health care” from personal experiences in Medial One, also makes the group’s performance suffer (Page 1); as employees are fighting over how to do things, instead of what to do – seen in argument. Medical One’s biased mindset, resulted in both extensive task-based conflicts and interpersonal conflicts with Healthcare Plus, disrupting possible progress. Task-based conflicts is seen as there was no agreement to solutions and interpersonal conflicts are also present as resentment was felt after becoming acquired by Healthcare Plus. (Robbins et al. 2016)

COMMON GOALS

Groups are defined as interacting and interdependent individuals, achieving particular goals. A common objectives accepted by all members of the group are essential – seen in the definition. Having a common, specific yet challenging goal would increase employee motivation and commitment to an organisation (Troselius 2017; Latham, 2004). It would also allow members to develop respect and fellowship as they have a clear purpose, enabling them to have better conversations regarding how to reach this goal. An element to solving the team’s hostility issue.

COMMON OBJECTIVE:

• Define the manager’s roles

In order to have successful teamwork, manager roles (expectation of behaviour from occupying position) must be well-defined. Since role perception and role expectations are different, (e.g. manager of Medical One might define her role to be facilitating high-quality services regardless of cost; whereas managers at Healthcare Plus could define their role as to inspect costs) these misconception must be addressed. As members have experienced different norms in both companies, they would have different outlooks and standardised behaviour towards the treatment of patients and the usage of inventory (Robbins et al. 2016). Thus, common understanding of their roles are essential.

• Critically evaluate and discuss opinions of each member

Colleen and her 14 managers should focus on brainstorming decision-making techniques instead of interacting group decision-making technique they currently use. The brainstorming decision-making techniques is an idea-generating process where ideas are encouraged and criticism is withheld. Allowing each manager to speak and argue their points without any interruptions or worry that others may immediately reject. Interacting group decision-making technique, is where members meet face-to-face and interact using verbal and non-verbal methods (Robbins et al. 2016). This is not a preferable in this situation as this method increases potential for interpersonal conflicts (Hirokawa & Rost 1992).

• Create positive group norms (acceptable behaviour shared by members)

Developing positive norms within groups, as Terry and Hogg have proved in their research article ‘Group Norms and the Attitude-Behavior Relationship’, perceived norms within groups can predict subjects attitude as well as promot conformity (Terry & Hogg 1996). Group norms must promote an common identity, respect and a sense of equality and trust. Medical One employee’s feelings of distrust, bitterness and resentment may be resolved if these norms are able to be successfully implemented; increasing worker satisfaction and delivering better quality of patient-care (Shuffler et al. 2018; Babiker 2014).

• Increase communications to build a common identity

Increasing communication helps resolve conflicts and develop a climate of trust amongst the members, necessary for high performance as the group can achieve team identity, cohesiveness and dilute disunity. Common group identity (collective characteristics or traits) developed will enhances self-esteem within the group and also collaborations (Dawes, Van De kragt & Orbell 2002; Gaffney & Mahajan 2010)Effective teamwork is especially essential in the healthcare industry as it’s outcomes will be immediate and positive in effecting patient safety and practice of quality (Babiker 2014).

• Focus on formulating plans to decrease cost without compromising on quality

Having a common goal aimed at satisfying both Medical One employees’ pride of providing high quality services and the evident need for Cost management is essential for the growth of this company. Once hostility and prejudice is ceased (as above objectives are achieved), the formulation of a common plan to reduce costs and wastage will be easier. Members are likely to be more reasonable and cordial. Allowing proper evaluations of issues and movement to the norming stage of the 5-stage model of group development.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES

The contingency theory states that there is no best way layout to lead an organisation (Flinsch-Rodriguez 2010). It states that situational factors will affect how effective leadership style are and follower’s proactivity will affect whether leader extraversion will increase follower’s performance (Robbins et al. 2016). This theory includes the Fiedler’s Model and the path-goal theory.

Fiedler’s model implies that a group’s effectiveness depends on whether a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates is compatible with the degree to which the situation gives the leader power. With effectiveness of the type of leadership (task-oriented or people-oriented) depending on whether the situation is favourable. In favourable and unfavourable situations, task-oriented leaders will have better performance, whereas in moderate situations, relationship-oriented leaders will produce better performance (Peters, Hartke & Pohlmann1985). Situational favourableness depends on: leader-member relationship, task structure and Leader’s position power. (Robbins et al. 2016)

Colleen’s group is currently in unfavourable situation – having a strained leader-member relationship, no defined task structure and no apparent authority to reward or punish – Colleen should adopt a task-oriented behaviour. As the company currently needs specific decision making to make progress, a task-oriented leader would be more suitable as they can better organise teams and projects, getting the job done without worrying too much about rapport. (Business balls 2019; Expert Program Management 2019; Cruz et al. 2011).

Path-goal theory states that leader’s job is to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide necessary direction to ensure that their goals are compatible with overall mission. This theory expresses that appropriate behaviour (directive, supportive, participative, achievement based) taken by manager depends on the characteristics of the followers and environmental factors. Characteristics of followers include worker’s authoritarianism, locus of control and ability, whereas environmental factors includes whether tasks are structured, organisation’s formal authority system is satisfying and the group is supportive. (Robbins et al. 2016)

In Colleen’s situation, her followers are low in authoritarianism (increasing trend in western countries abandoning hierarchal management styles with an empowering approach), internal locus of control (Reltz and Groff’s paper found that developed countries have high internal locus of control) and high ability (assumed, as all are competent managers), colleen should develop a supportive role (Meyer 2013; Reltz & Groff 1974). Additionally, having environmental factors of unstructured tasks, dissatisfying formal authority system and work group lacking social support, a supportive leadership style would be necessary to stimulate and advocate progress (Robbins et al. 2016). Thus an supportive yet tasked-based leadership style must be adopted.

The contemporary theory of leadership includes transformational leadership and authentic leadership. Transformational leadership refers to inspiring followers to transcend their personal interests for the sake of the community, but it also includes transactional qualities of guiding employees in the direction of an established goal. Allowing original employees of Medical One to envision a direction for this company and feel stimulated to work towards it. (Robbins et al. 2016)

Colleen should also strive to be an authentic leader. An authentic leader is one who treats their employees well, creates ethical environment and performs corporate social responsibility acts. Creating trust in their employees through having integrity, benevolence and skills, resulting in increased risk taking, group sharing and productivity. This is essential for Colleen, as she needs to be trusted by the former employees of Medical One to break this barrier of division (Hakanen, Häkkinen, & Soudunsaari 2015). Able to energise followers, developing trust, engagement and performance, reducing hostile team environment (Pless & Maak 2011) and having employees receptive to her ideas, decisions; trusting her ability and intentions. (Robbins et al. 2016)

CONCLUSION

As this merger complicated the relationship between the employees of the two medical care companies, Colleen needs to ensure that the apparent division in her team are dissolved and there are no hostility in the work environment. Colleen can do this by taking on a task-orientated but supported leadership style. Also becoming an authentic and transformational leader, attempting to present clear directions, while reassuring and encouraging cooperation, is also essential for good productivity and performance.